Napoleon Bonaparte: A Detailed Biography

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821) rose from obscure Corsican artillery officer to Emperor of the French and conqueror of most of Europe. His military genius, legal reforms, and dramatic fall make him one of history’s most studied figures. This biography traces his meteoric rise, imperial reign, defeats, exiles, and mysterious death.

Early Life and Education

Corsican Origins

Napoleone di Buonaparte was born on August 15, 1769, in Ajaccio, Corsica, only 15 months after France bought the island from Genoa. From a minor noble family, he spoke Corsican and Italian before French, as documented by the Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Rise During the Revolution

Toulon and First Italian Campaign

In 1793, Captain Bonaparte’s brilliant siege of Toulon earned him promotion to brigadier general at age 24. His 1796–1797 Italian Campaign crushed five Austrian armies, turning him into a national hero, as chronicled by the UK National Archives.

Consul and Emperor

Coup of 18 Brumaire

In November 1799, Napoleon overthrew the Directory and became First Consul. In 1804 he crowned himself Emperor Napoleon I in Notre-Dame — famously taking the crown from Pope Pius VII and placing it on his own head.

The Napoleonic Code and Reforms

The Civil Code of 1804 abolished feudal privileges, established equality before the law, secular education, and property rights. It remains the foundation of law in France and many countries, as noted by the UC Berkeley Law Library.

Height of Power (1805–1812)

Victories at Austerlitz (1805), Jena-Auerstedt (1806), and Friedland (1807) made Napoleon master of continental Europe. He placed brothers on thrones and married Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria in 1810, producing an heir (Napoleon II).

Downfall

Russia 1812 and Leipzig 1813

The disastrous invasion of Russia (only ~40,000 of 600,000 men returned) and the 1813 Battle of the Nations at Leipzig ended French dominance. Paris fell in March 1814; Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to Elba.

The Hundred Days and Waterloo

Escaping Elba in February 1815, he ruled France again for 111 days. Defeated at Waterloo on June 18, 1815, he abdicated a second time and was exiled to remote Saint Helena, as recorded by the Smithsonian Magazine.

Exile and Death

On the lonely South Atlantic island, Napoleon dictated memoirs. He died on May 5, 1821, aged 51. Autopsy showed advanced stomach cancer; later hair analysis found elevated arsenic (likely from wallpaper dye or medicine), but cancer remains the accepted cause.

Death and Legacy

Napoleon’s Enduring Impact

His legal code, metric system, central banking, and modern state bureaucracy still shape the world. The Napoleonic Wars redrew Europe’s map and spread nationalism and liberalism. His legend inspired Beethoven (who erased the dedication of the Eroica Symphony), Victor Hugo, and modern leadership studies.

Frequently Asked Questions About Napoleon Bonaparte

Why Is Napoleon Bonaparte Famous?

For conquering most of Europe, creating the Napoleonic Code, and crowning himself Emperor.

How Tall Was Napoleon?

About 5′7″ (1.69 m) — average for his time. The “short” myth is British propaganda.

Where Was Napoleon Born?

Ajaccio, Corsica, on August 15, 1769.

What Was the Napoleonic Code?

The 1804 Civil Code that abolished feudalism and guaranteed legal equality.

Why Did Napoleon Lose at Waterloo?

Defeated by Wellington and Blücher after rain delays and the failure of Grouchy’s corps to arrive.

Where Was Napoleon Exiled?

First Elba (1814–1815), then Saint Helena (1815–1821).

How Did Napoleon Die?

May 5, 1821, on Saint Helena — most likely stomach cancer.